Origin of Language Essay

Language is a means of communication that is made up of signs, symbols, and sounds or a combination of them. Signs represent something else like aroma and coffee, scent and flower, dark clouds and rain. Symbols are words we use to denote a thing or a being, such as man to mean person, dog to refer to an animal. Sounds are vocal emissions like laughter, sobbing, and groans suggestive of joy, sorrow, and pain. A more complex form of language is its organized system of semantics, syntax and phonetics. Spoken language is exclusive to humans. Language in whatever form continues to draw the interests of linguists, researchers, scientists and academicians, especially in the area of its origin. There are references in the Bible about language and communication. As early as the time of Adam and Eve, there was already some kind of communication and language between God and the both of them. In the temptation of Eve, the serpent communicated with her. There was only one language between Noah and his family. In the Tower of Babel, God was displeased with the people who refused to obey his command for them to spread out across the earth and so He gave them different languages. In the end they were forced to disperse to all corners of the world. This explains the why each geographic location have their own language. (Harub, 2003). Two contradicting theories on the origin of language are the Theory of Natural Selection and the Exaptation Theory. The Exaptation Theory simply put is when a body part is used for another purpose other than for which it was originally intended. An example of this theory is the feathers of a bird which is basically used to cover its body but later is made to glide and trap insects with. The brain processes from its cognitive structures were used by pre-historic ancestors to hunt and gather food. Language depends on cognitive processes and could have been possibly exapted in much the same way as the feathers. The Natural Selection Theory on the other hand provides that our language skills may have been from the brain structures that our ancestors may have possessed in their time. Brains have two neural pathways used for language and cognition. Humans use the ventral stream or pathway for linguistics. While both humans and non-humans, such as the chimps, possess the same neural makeup it is only the humans who have language. Cromm, 2003). Another theory of origin of language is the Theory of a Proto-Language. There are several stages in this theory: (1) the gesture-prior to-sound stage where body language is combined with sound. An example would be the index finger pressed on the lips with a hush sound, is a request to be quiet. (2) words-prior to-sentence stage where single words are connected with others to form a sentence and convey a thought or idea. I / have / three / red / apples are five separate words that connect to form a sentence and convey the thought about possessing three red fruits. 3) phrases-prior to-words stage is where a phrase with a single idea and each word is taken apart individually. An example is: a high and majestic mountain. Individual words are – high / majestic / mountain. The Proto-Language is original, distinct and has no precedent language. (AMNH, 2008). Different linguists each had their own theories. Jean Aitchison, author of â€Å"The Seeds of Speech† believed that physiologically, the human brain which had grown bigger in size than his primate ancestors’, made man capable of developing speech and language. John McCrone who supported the Evolution Theory of Language, was of the opinion that man was able to speak because they descended from the apes who themselves were able to speak when they found enough food to feed their enormous brains. Michael Corballis in his book â€Å"From Hand to Mouth: The Origin of Landscape† theorized that it was a gradual development for language, beginning with gesturing from the apes. With the bipedal hominids language evolved to a more complex body movement. Syntax and melodic sounds were the later developments with the emergence of the larger-brained homos. With the homo sapiens it was a combination of gestures and vocals, the gestures as enhancement and not as foundation. Carl Zimmer, another evolutionist, emphasized that the timeline of the origin and development of language can not be specifically traced because human skeletons leave very few significant clues. Many evolutionists maintain that languages today must have originated from only one ancient language characterized by different animal grunts and sounds. The development of language was a natural and not an intentional process. Noam Chromsky the eminent linguist from MIT, explained that different languages that we have now came from a common and universal language and that the human brains has a fixed and exclusive structure for language. (Harub, 2003). There are several other theories on the origin of language: Theory 1, it may have begun with the use of ordinary symbols to refer to significant objects. A scoop of earth refers to the land, a leaf to the tree, a drop of water to the rain. Theory 2, it may have originated from hand and body movements. One’s palm on one’s heart means me or I, pointing at whatever object means that object. Theory 3, it may have come from the imitation of the sounds of nature, like the splash of water, howling of the wind, the bark of the dog, Theory 4, it may have been from the emotive sounds of natural instinct and reaction, like grrr from anger, ahhh for satisfaction or comprehension, hmmm for agreement. Theory 6, it may have been because of the use of sounds to correspond to intended meanings, like long vowel sounds of o for moon and long e for creek, tree, sea. Theory 7, it may have originated from the grunts due to heavy loads, rhythmic monotones of work accompanied by gestures seeking assistance, like hand signals waving towards the one asking help as he makes the repetitive sounds of ugh ugh ugh. Theory 8, it may have been from words that were almost musical, uttered in cooing such as uhuhmm hmmm hummm hmmm, and laughter like hahahaha, hahahaaa. Theory 8, it came from sounds to advise or make known one’s presence as in yahooo, or to cry out for help as in heyyy. Theory 9, it originated from magical chants from religious rituals, similar to the Maori wish of good health (kia ora ra) and welcome (haere mai). Theory 10, it was an invention of some ancestors when they assigned certain sounds to mean certain things, beating of the drums to gather people. (Boeree, 2003). Michael C. Corballis made note of the stages of development of language. The earliest began over 6 million years ago with the apes and their simple body language as their means of communicating. This developed into a more complicated body gestures with the hominids. During this period sounds were used only in extreme cases as in highly emotional cries and distress calls. 5 million years back, a more sophisticated form of hand gestures by the early hominids were used. 2 million years ago, researches found an increase in the brain size of the homos believed to be the reason of the human’s higher development and facility in language. Vocals became permanent in communication and gestures were a good part of grammar. 100,000 years ago, speaking was in its fully developed stage that it became the main means of communication by homo sapiens. Gesturing was still in use but only as an embellishment. In the modern times with telecommunications technology verbal language become routine and common. It is interesting to note that in the advent of modern technology, with the shift from manual signals to spoken language, man is able to use his hands to work and his mind and vocals to communicate. (cited in Science Week, 2004). The search for the origin of language remains to be a continuing quest for scholars. Researches always lead to the theory of evolution. There is no way to know exactly when language began and where language came from. Scientific evidences such as fossils, DNA, comparative studies on animals and ancient languages can only provide clues but not enough traces. For a while, in 1866 the Society of Paris, the prominent academic language institute of the era, had given up in finding out more about language’s origin. It was taken as a retreat from the battle but not for long. To this day, forward thinkers such as the evolutionists are convinced that they must find convincing proof in the upcoming theories that should attempt to answer the query on the origin of language.

Kilogram and Density

CHAPTER 1 1. List the seven SI base quantities, units, and symbols. TIME Second (s) 2. Give the correct SI derived units of the following quantities. Density Speed Acceleration Force Pressure kg/m3 Energy 3. Convert the following: ? m (Ans. 1. 22) a. 1. 22 x 10-9 km = b. 6. 523 x 10-4 nm = c. 2. 5x 10-9 nm3 = d. 30. 5 cm/? s = e. 9. 6 ng/mm2 = 4. Mm (Ans. 6. 523 x 10-19) mm3 (Ans. 2. 5 x 10-27) km/h (Ans. 1. 09 x 106) kg/m2 (Ans. 9. 6 x 10-6) Perform the following calculations and report each answer with the correct number of significant figures and units. b. 2. 457 m x 1. 2 m x 2. 45 m d. 3. 6050 cm x (24. 10 cm – 23. 0 cm) a. 3. 45 m – 3. 4 m c. (50. 214 g – 49. 93 g) x 1. 224 cm / 55. 22 cm3 e. 4. 0 x 102 cm – 3 cm f. ?2. 7612g ? 2. 7601g ? 2. 20cm 3 g 26. 167m ? 83m 5. 100m h. 12. 64 cm – 48 mm + 0. 246 m (answer in meters) 7. 87 g/m2 (16. 1 m – 8. 44 m) i. Ans. a) 0. 1 m; b) 7. 2 m3; c) 6. 3 x 10-3 g/cm2; d) 3. 61 cm2; e) 4. 0 x 102 cm; f) 5. 0 x 10-4 g/cm3; g) 21. 4 g/m3; h) 0. 324 m ; i) 1. 03 g/cm3 5. The element beryllium is considered toxic at a concentration of 3. 0 x 10-12 g/cm3. What is this concentration in ng/m3? (Ans. 3. 0 x 103) 6. The average density of the earth is 5. 52 g/cm 3. What is its density in: a) ? /mm3? (Ans. 5. 52 x 103) b) lb/ft3? (1 lb = 453. 6 g; 1 in = 2. 54 cm) (Ans. 345) 7. Diamond has a density of 3. 513 g/cm3. The mass of diamonds is often measured in â€Å"carats† where 1 carat = 200 mg. What is the volume (in cm 3) of a 2. 5 carat diamond? (Ans. 0. 14) The density of a liquid alcohol is 0. 79 g/cm 3. A tank measuring 3. 2 m x 0. 0020 km x 4. 1 mm is filled with the alcohol. What is the mass of the contents in kg? (Ans. 21) The density of gold is 19. 3 g/ cm 3. A 3. 4 mg sample of gold is hammered into a square foil that is 8. 6 ? 10? 6 cm thick. What is the length of a side of the square, in cm? Ans. 4. 5) A 14-karat gold ring contains 58. 3% gold and weighs 12. 41 g. If go ld sells for $276. 00/ounce, what is the value of the gold in the ring? (1 oz = 28. 35 g) (Ans. $70. 4) A packing material has a density of 12. 8 kg/m 3. How many lbs of this material are needed to fill a 2. 00 ft3 box? (1lb = 454 g; 1in = 2. 54 cm) (Ans. 1. 60 lb) 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. A jogger runs at an average speed of 6. 5 mi/h. (1 mile = 1. 609 km; 1 in = 2. 54 cm) a) How fast is she running in m/s? (Ans. 2. 91 m/s) b) How many kilometers does she run in 98 min? (Ans. 17 km) c) How long should it take her to cover 12 km? (Ans. 1. h) d) If she starts a run at 11:15 am, what time is it after she covers 4. 75 x 10 4 ft? (Ans 12:38pm) 13. Manganese makes up 1. 3 x 10-4 percent by mass of the elements found in a normal healthy body. How many grams of manganese would be found in the body of person weighing 183 lbs? (2. 2 lb = 1. 0 kg) (Ans. 0. 11 g) If 5. 00 lbs of mercury cost $175 and mercury has a density of 13. 6 g/cm3, what is the cost of 2. 00 L of mercury? (1 lb = 454 g) (Ans. $ 2. 10 x 103) If a raindrop weighs 65 mg on average and 5. 1 x 10 5 raindrops fall on a lawn every minute. What mass (in kg) of rain falls on a lawn in 2. h? (Ans. 5. 0 x 103 kg) A concentrated sulfuric acid solution has a density of 1. 84 g/cm3 and contains is 95. 7% H2SO4 by mass. (Note: density of a solution means mass of solution divided by volume of solution. ) a) How many grams of pure H 2SO4 are contained in 1. 00 gallon of this solution? 3. 785 L) (Ans. 6. 66 x 103) (1 gallon = 14. 15. 16. b) How many mm3 of this solution contain 100. 0 mg of pure H2SO4? ( Ans 56. 8 mm3) 17. A gold alloy has a density of 12. 4 g/ml and contains 75. 0% gold by mass. Calculate the volume of this alloy that can be made from 255 g of pure gold. (Ans. 27. 4 mL) 18.Whole milk contains 8. 0 % butterfat by mass. If 5. 0 g butterfat supplies 15 calories, how many calories are contained in 1. 45 gallons of whole milk ( density of milk = 0. 8 g/ml; 1 gallon = 3. 785 L) (Ans. 1. 1 x 103 cal) Earthâ€℠¢s oceans have an average depth of 3. 800 x 10 3 m, a total area of 3. 63 x 108 km2, and an average concentration of dissolved gold equal to 5. 80 ng/L. 19. a) Caculate the volume of the oceans in cm3. (Ans. 1. 38 x 1024) b) How many kilograms of gold are in the oceans? (Ans. 8. 00 x 109 kg) c) If a recent price of gold was $370. 00/troy oz, what is the value of gold in the oceans? 1 troy oz =31. 1g) (Ans. $ 9. 52 x 1013) 20. When combining the masses 0. 0562 kg, 124. 213 g and 1635 mg, the total should be reported to ______ significant figures. (Ans. 4) 21. What is the best answer to report for the following mathematical operation? 15. 415 ? 14. 515 + 0. 0402597 (Ans. 0. 300) 3. 465 22. How many vials of volume 24. 2 mm 3 can be filled from a bulk sample of 0. 525 kg of a liquid of density 0. 900 g/cm3? (Ans. 2. 41 x 104) It is estimated that uranium is relatively common in the earth’s crust, occurring in amounts of 4 g/metric ton. A metric ton is 1000 kg.At this concentrati on, what mass of uranium is present in 1. 0 mg of the earth’s crust? A. B. C. D. E. 4 nanograms 4 micrograms 4 milligrams 4 x 10-5 g 4 centigrams 23. 24. Which of the following are intensive properties? W. mass X. density Y. volume Z. boiling point Which one of the following is not a physical property of water? A. B. C. D. E. It exists in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms It reacts with sodium to form sodium hydroxide It is clear and colorless It freezes at 100? C at 1 atm pressure It boils at 100? C at 1 atm pressure 25. ————————————–ANSWERS: 23 A; 24 X and Z; 25 B.

Empirical Action Research on Behavior Management Systems Article

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Global Forces, Local Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Forces, Local Diversity - Essay Example According toâ€Å"Peakbagger.com† The Appalachian Mountains act as recreational site with numerous parks and the Appalachian Trail used by stout hikers globally (Web). The mountain ranges remain one of the most significant geographical and historical features in the world especially due to its uniqueness and bigger size. Possibly, if the Appalachians could have been located in a different place it could still maintain its geographical influence but different cultural and economic influence. The mountains could not affect the natives or the first settlers equally because there must have been different cultural background of the settlers. Suppose the Appalachians could have been located in Africa or Asia, initially the name and the culture of people around it would have been traced back to the original African or Asian culture. Some of the features of the mountains especially the ice cover and vegetation cover may have also been altered depending on the climate and activities taking place in that particular region. â€Å"The Moonlit Road† asserts that the culture of the people living around the Appalachian Mountains was a mixture of different cultures from England, Scotland, and Germany settlers who were seeking land, freedom, and new opportunities thus making the region multi-cultural region especially at the modern age when most people around the world have gone to seek for employment. Some Americans also think that the Appalachians are not well educated and all these could be attributed to the fact that the regions’ topography could not favor infrastructural development. The Appalachians are not as civilized as other parts of America and are sometimes referred to as hicks, rednecks, and hillbillies (â€Å"Peakbagger.com† Web). â€Å"The Moonlit Road† posits that European settlers greatly influenced the social disruption, which resulted into environmental disruption especially due to introduction of plants and animals from Europe. The indigenous however initially d epended on the valuable resources provided by the Appalachia region such as wildlife to be hunted, fish from the sparkling rivers as well as logs that helped them in building houses. There were also some unique cultures such as casual mountain dances practiced by the Appalachians (â€Å"Peakbagger.com† Web). It is also worth noting that most of the Appalachians could not fully dwell on farming because the mountains were rocky and hilly thus hindering their ability to make a living out of farming. This led to some disheartening conditions such as widespread of poverty that eventually led to widespread disease infections and malnutrition amongst the population specifically the children. According to â€Å"Peakbagger.com† economic activities within the Appalachian regions vary from fishing, farming, manufacturing, and commerce. There are also notable coals as well as natural gas in the Appalachian plateau as well as valuable iron ore deposits. Nonetheless, there are eleme nts of chronic poverty experienced in Appalachian region particularly in the southern regions. This is really appalling because the region is endowed with extensive natural resources. It is indeed devastating to experience extreme poverty and severe economic hardship and even the effect of globalization which seems to do more harm than good. Chief export for

The Relevance of Buddhism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Relevance of Buddhism - Essay Example The main goal of Buddhism is to reach the ultimate state of Nirvana, which is through the negation of rebirths and end the human suffering, which is attached to the soul. Siddharta Gautama, who died in the year 400BC, taught the attainment of salvation through the application of an ethical code of conduct, unselfish behavior, ceremonies, devotional practices, meditation, reincarnation of worldly matters, study, physical exercises, cultivation of wisdom and the negation of suffering by understanding the true meaning of our natural phenomena. CIA, The World Factbook shows that While Buddhism is quite popular amongst people in the Asian countries; it also has branches across the globe. It is also believed that Buddhism has over 400 million followers across the world. At present, Buddhism is subdivided into two forms and has two main distinct branches. First being the Theravada branch that is a form of Buddhism which is mostly followed in the Southeastern regions of Asia. And second, the Mahayana that is a form of Buddhism which is widely followed throughout East Asian countries. Theravada is a Sanskrit word which means â€Å"way of the elders† (Reynolds, 2009). Founded in India, spreading in the third century BCE, through to Sri Lanka and Burma then to Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam and most recently to Indonesia and Australia. It is the oldest surviving Buddhist school and is a closely guarded school that is supposed to be the closest to the original teachings of Buddhism and is the main religion of Sri Lanka. It is widespread in South East Asia, wherein countries such as Laos, Cambodia, Burma, and Thailand have been following its practices for centuries.

International marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International marketing - Essay Example Similarly, the increase in the competitiveness nature of international markets calls for improved quality and advancement in the production techniques (Ronkainen, 2005, p.97-8). The entry strategies in an international category involves making decisions on the goals and objectives of the firm, choice of the products/services, market penetration modes, and performance monitoring and control systems which are deemed appropriate for the market. After evaluating its potential, strengths, capacities, and limitations, a corporation then figures going multinational. Exploring an international market with more promising potential involves market screening of all the potential markets. The screening exercise is conducted based on economic, cultural, and political factors which have the potential of affecting operations of the firm in the foreign market (Keegan, & Schlegelmilch, 2011, p.37). Besides, geographical factors and demographic variables must be given close attention. These include lo cation, composition of the potential target consumers (based on gender, age, income, culture, and family structures), political and economic environment (covering from legal regulations, duties and taxes, to consumer protection standards), and market characteristics. Being the fundamental factors under investigation, size, level of competition, and distribution agents with the marketing environment must be valued (Root, 2009, p.56). Otherwise, if these factors are not considered, then the firm will not succeed in the foreign market as it will fail to command the much needed market share. The selection of an overseas market is conducted in five stages. The first stage entails conducting an investigation on the domestic market regulations and management preferences. The second stage involves conducting an initial entry assessment programs. The third and the fourth steps are conducting a survey on the competitiveness and market responses respectively. The final step in exploring foreig n market entails a detailed analysis of international trade-off possibilities (Wolfgang, 2008, p.67). After the completion of market selection, a firm then plans her entry strategy. A number of entry strategy options are made available for firms to choose from. Firms may either choose for enter the foreign market through distributors or agents or through direct methods such as partnerships, alliances, direct sales promotion, or agreements (Johansson, 2007, p.75). The method of market entry adopted by the foreign firm venturing in a new market significantly affects the outcome and success of the firm. These entry strategies may be undertaken in form of licensing, joint venture, exporting, and direct investments. However, independent of the entry strategy chosen by a firm, their access to the market is limited. Though using intermediaries and agents results into a fasters and greater command of the market, it is relatively costly and very bureaucratic (Pan, & Tse, 2007, p.87). This im plies that the venturing/investing firm has no direct control of the market and neither has any direct link with the customers/consumers. On the other hand, direct entry methods are better in building personalized market understanding, it is limited with the fact that the foreign firm will not have any control of the ma

Case Study -Rehabilitation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Team Training Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Team Training Plan - Essay Example The collaboration of the team members is essential in order to get the job tasks of the team done. In order to enhance the leadership skills of all the team members a position called team leader will be generated. The team leader position serves as a training exercise for the leader in order to make apply critical thinking skills and leadership. The mechanism that will ensure everyone gets a chance to be team leader is a rotating mechanism. Each week our team will have a different team leader. The collaboration between team members will ensure that everyone participates in the team project. Collaboration involves recognition that something is wrong and needs attention immediately through problem solving (Schermerhorn & Hunt & Osborn, 2003). The utilization of collaboration is considered in organizational management as a win-win proposition. Whenever a team player has any concern about the job to be completed he will have the support of the other team members. Another tool that will b e used to enhance the collaboration of the team is creating different position that provide specific task to the completed by the player. Three additional positions that our team will have along with team leader are editor, researcher, and administrative assistant. Creating a structure in our team will enhance the functionality of the work to be performed. A training exercise that will be used by the team to gather ideas simultaneously is brainstorming sessions. Collaboration among the team member is important in order for the brainstorming session to have positive effects and greater results. A second important element of the action plan of the team is communication. Communication is essential in order for people in organization to function in an effective manner. Managers today must have excellent communication skills in order to motivate their employees. As mention earlier a tool that

Bridget Jones The Edge of Reason' Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Bridget Jones The Edge of Reason' - Movie Review Example She was so immersed with her heart's interest that she did away with her old ways for a new lifestyle. She began to help herself out with books that she thought would help her develop and evolve into a confident personality. Bridget spent her leisure time struggling to read and understand things which she eventually tried to internalize. She took care of every detail of her personal appearance. Eventually, she began to work harder to ascend in the hierarchy of achievements in her chosen career. She dreamt dreams that almost everyone her age does, but, often, though success seems arms away, it is just as illusive as a castle in the sky. She got jilted by her fianc. She had other relationships, but, it always winded up with breaking her heart. She had friends like Rebecca. But, Rebecca was not trustworthy. Rebecca broke her heart because she developed great attraction to Mark. Rebecca was a flirt and did nothing to discontinue, until she broke up Bridget's and Mark's relationship. It was sad, but, life has to go on for Bridget. In the movie, the Bridget Jones story was portrayed as a romantic comedy fairy-tale that commenced in her mother's social gathering. Bridget was a euphoric young lady, so avid for her man who was a human rights Lawyer. Unfortunately, she lost him to a woman who was an associate in the Law firm her boyfriend was working. This brought Bridget a challenge, to do better at work as a television reporter. However, her television network boss turned her into a clown. Screen clips were focused on her bulluptous, but, seductive bottoms. She once was convinced to do an advertisement event on sky diving. Drably, she was dropped into a pond of dirt. She took all of it in a stride believing in her innocence it was all part of the work she contracted to earn what she needs for the living.The movie went on with the various experiences Bridget Jones went through as well as the ups and downs in her career. Until when she went on to a country in Asia for a vacation, which turned out again as another miserable episode in her young life, she was not configured to have been frustrated nor distressed. After all, her mom and dad were always around, more than willing to embrace her back. But, she maintained her desire to live an independent life which winded up with her true love Mark. Conclusion: Books like novels are written by authors and surely reflect the ideas of the author. The movements of characters depend upon the intention or the moral lessons the author tries to project. As well, as the story plot develops, the writer adds fascinating episodes to reach a climax at one point. And eventually, comes up with a concluding chapter that keeps the reader satisfied. While the movies are written by an author, but the story is depicted on screen with the huge influence of a director. So, variations or story twist are expected for a screenplay to draw the interest of movie fanatics. Movies do have plots, climax, and ending but, recently the fad is to keep the audience hanging for another episode. Besides, movies are

Early Matrimony is Ineluctable Mistake Essay Example for Free

Early Matrimony is Ineluctable Mistake Essay For certain countries such as the poor countries of the Middle East and Africa, their young women are traditionally made to believe that only by marrying young can they get out of the quagmire that their current life has placed them in. The men of these countries do not have much to fear, but the women, most of whom are married off as early as the ages of 10 and 12 years old, they sometimes pay with their lives for such a mistake. The women of these countries are most often trained to accept that early marriage is an inescapable part of their lives and they cannot do anything but accept it. Such early marriages are an acceptable tradition in these countries and is most often done using only the tribes specific traditions and therefore are not registered by the state thus making such unions illegal. But because the women do not understand any of these things, they stay in what they believe to be a life long commitment. In the United States, early marriages occur within the youth of the country between the ages of 15-17 with less harsher outcomes, although still with ineluctable mistakes. I will discuss that in the latter part of this paper. For now, I would like to concentrate on the unfair practice of early marriages in the Middle East and certain countries in Asia. Most of these so called child marriages happen in the outback countries like Nigeria, Central African Republic, Nepal, Uganda, and Bangladesh to name but only a few of these countries. A recent UN report entitled â€Å"Child Protection from Violence, Exploitation, and Abuse† noted that such early marriages occur in the rural settings possibly because of the way those of little or no education equate female youth with fertility. A part of the report indicates that â€Å"Child marriage is associated with high levels of fertility. For example in Colombia, 1 per cent of women with no children, 35 per cent of women with one or two children, 72 per cent of women with 3 or 4 children and 87 per cent of women with 5 or more children were married by age 18 (UNICEF estimates based on DHS 2000). â€Å" A family’s finances play a major part in the decision to turn their daughters into a child bride. The simple minded folk of these nations believe that by marrying off their child early, they are rid of an economic burden since in their culture, there are certain activities women simply are not allowed to perform even if they are capable of doing so. For such young marriages, the unions signify that the child will manage to survive even away from the family. Such marriages may also be orchestrated by the family of the girl because they believe that by marrying off their daughter at an early age, she will be protected from sexual abuse because she already has her husband to protect her. Sometimes, the reason for the marriage is also as simple as trying to insure that the child will grow into womanhood without the possibility of having a bastard child. Although the family of the female child has good intentions for marrying off their child at an early age, their lack of formal education limits their knowledge of the highly life threatening aftermaths of such early marriages. A child trapped in an early marriage no longer has a future ahead of her as she is expected to comply with the tradition wherein the married child no longer attends school and instead tends to her family. These countries also have very poor sanitation and healthcare facilities, hence the high rate of sexually transmitted disease in the area. The child brides are faced with a constant stream of premature pregnancies and infant deaths. Reports say that these women also most often than not test positive for HIV/ AIDS. Perhaps the saddest part of these young marriages in Asia and the Middle East is that the little girls are often abused by their pre-arranged spouses. This is not to say that the little girls who choose their own spouses do not get punished once they marry a man who is not the choice of their parents. In such cases, once a spouse or family senses that their family honor has been tarnished, they are most often killed by â€Å"honor killings† which hope to restore their family names. Indeed, for such countries, early matrimony, early marriage is indeed an inescapable mistake. The repercussions of such marriages see the under aged women paying for their mistake with their lives. For death it seems, is the only way out of such marriages in that part of the world where females are valued more as a property than a person. Nobody tries to inform the women that they can get out of their current situation simply by getting an education and using it to get out of their early marriage before they commit any more serious mistakes. Over in our part of the world, The United States also has its own share of early marriages. But there is a marked difference between the Mid East and African problem and ours. Mainly because even though early marriages are sometimes entered into by the youths of the land, they do not have to choose to remain in the marriage if it is not working for them. That is an option that I can only wish for the rest of the world to leave open for the mistakes of youth. In our country, such early marriages are deemed illegal by law and is therefore prohibited. Although, marrying young with a duly accomplished parental consent form is allowed. An early marriage in our country is one that is entered into by parties within the 14-19 age bracket. Even though both the young man and young woman have the support of both sides of the family, the marriage still fails with some inescapable and life changing results. In the article â€Å"Marrying Minors: Are They Making a Mistake? † staff writer Elizabeth Alvarado discusses the reasons as to why marrying young, even for American youth, is a big mistake. Using actual early marriage experiences as related by those women who were at one time or another involved in such a relationship, she explains how the law known as Dissolution of Marriage more commonly known as Divorce, allows the parties to leave the marriage but forces them to face the life long mistakes that decision to marry young has placed upon their young shoulders. There was a time in the past 40 years that young men and women often married even before they completed their high school education. When the Brigham Young University conducted a study related to the issue, they discovered that there was an 80 % divorce rate among those youths who married at the age of 14. Such statistics can be considered very high when compared to the 45 % of failed 20 year old marriages and 30 % of the 23 year olds. Such mistakes may be attributed to the follies of youth. At such ages, teenagers are not yet mentally mature nor emotionally ready to handle the big responsibilities that come with married life. They are still in their selfish stage and think that everything in life is a game. Which is why as the maturity begins to set in, so do the changes in attitude and perspectives of the mates involved in the marriage. Most of the youth involved in early marriages also run a very high risk of never completing their college education because of the way decisions have to be made differently when a couple is married. There is also that foreseeable outcome of the couple having children. Children are the most inescapable mistake of marrying young. Children suffer the most because their parents were not ready emotionally, socially, and financially to deal with the presence of a child. In such events, the mother most often has to quit school and care for the child. In this respect, she becomes no more different than her Middle East and African counterparts who sacrifice themselves in the name of motherhood. Although, unlike the men in the previous scenario, who are usually twice the age of their wives and therefore more mature and able to handle the situation better, their American counterparts are barely out of short pants themselves and find themselves lost when it comes to dealing with the reality of a family and fatherhood. Once the mistakes begin to pile up in this scenario, both parties become disillusioned and wish for nothing more than to end the nightmare of a marriage they so willingly entered into at first. Leaving behind the most irrevocable, real mistake that they will have to deal with for the rest of their lives. The fact that they brought a life into this world and that living person will be the constant reminded to them as to why early marriage most often than not fails to survive. After hearing the facts and supporting arguments I believe that you will agree with me that marrying young does not have to be an inescapable mistake for the youth involved in such marriages at the moment. It is true that there will be inescapable results stemming from the marriage, but with proper education, nobody has to remain in an early marriage that is proving to be disastrous for them as individuals.

Cultural Aspects in India

Cultural Aspects in India If the 20th century was generally recognized to be the American century, then the 21st might very well be regarded as the Indian century. After all, following China, India has the largest population in the world. Like China, it too has a large and fast-developing economy, and it is steadily converting these economic gains into growing political power abroad. Unlike China, however, India is governed by a vibrant, participatory democracy, which, while chaotic, reflects the political values of human rights and pluralism so cherished in the West. Indeed, as countries which have long guided the West in leading the world begin to lose ground to counterparts in the developing world, India is one of the few major future powers in a position to pick up the Wests mantle of human progress and freedom. Though like the West in its commitment to democracy, India brings with a unique set of circumstances, informed by a history and culture, which stretch back for thousands of years. The common theme of Indian history has been heterogeneity. The abundant diversity found in India today was present almost from the beginning. The countrys oldest historical document, the Rig Veda, which is also a religious one, recounts a massive migration of one conceived ‘ancestor group and its intermingling with a loosely described native culture (Keay, 19-56). Scholars have found evidence of civilizations on the Indian subcontinent stretching back to times concurrent with the first city-states of Mesopotamia, Indian history (Keay, 1-18). Between the time of the Harrapan City States of around 3,000 B.C. all the way to Indias current prime minister Manmohan Singh, India has absorbed wave after wave of new peoples, new beliefs, and new ideas and added this to an already heady mix with every passing c entury. As a result, Indias startling diversity and variety were multiplied in countless directions. Nowadays there are over 400 languages spoken in India with over 14 official languages recognized according to the CIA World Factbook. Its population, which had stayed predominately rural until recent years, is becoming more urbanized, and two of the worlds five most populous cities are located there. The Indian parliamentary democracy is multi-party, regional, and highly factionalized, reflecting the drastic differences that exist between districts even within the same province. With all this diversity, it is tempting to impute irreconcilable contradictions between the types of people, institutions, and beliefs found in India. One might ask: how can one form a coherent statement about the existence of an overarching Indian culture? The answer to this has been as much a problem for government leaders as it has been for scholars, but it is one this paper will endeavor to supply in the following ways: We will discuss the major components of Indian culture (people, frames of references / communication, and group interactions) to illustrate the staggering variety of Indian cultural practices. We will focus on the notion of the Indian family and its characteristics, and attempt to make the case that the family as an institution provides a unifying theme for Indian culture, and a vehicle, which simultaneously relieves and reinforces the tectonic tensions brought on by societal diversity. We will discuss the findings of our interviews and outside readings to form a â€Å"big picture† analysis of Indian culture. II. Culture Components Gannon and Pillai supply readers with two metaphors through which to conceive of the sheer magnitude of diversity found in Indian cultural practices: the Dance of Shiva and a Kaleidoscope. In either case, there is a dynamic tension between change and stasis, creation and destruction, and the rules of general and specific; both metaphors create a framework for understanding that heterogeneity is the rule of thumb when conceiving of India as a whole. To view Indian culture in all its staggering complexity, it is necessary to begin with the component parts: people, frames of references / communication and group interactions. A. The Indian People For Westerners seeking to understand the staggering diversity found on the Indian Subcontinent, there is a helpful quote from a Hindu religious prayer, which can assist: â€Å"May good thoughts come to us from all sides† (â€Å"Religions†). Its simplicity reveals an acceptance of variety, heterodoxy and the unconventional; it turns on its head the notion of diversity being a challenge, and refashions it as an asset. To effectively argue that there is a general, overarching Indian culture, it is important to first acknowledge as true that such a culture is also served by many distinct parts, which have guided that nations historic, political, social and economic development. When considering the citizens of India, it is similarly important to perceive the numerous and stark divisions with regards to ethnic / linguistic groupings, social and economic levels, as well as religious and philosophical make-up. i. Demographics; Social and Economic Levels India is the second most populous nation in the world, having an estimated population of 1.17 billion (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†). Though the World Factbook only subdivides Indias immense population into four ethnic categories: Indo-Aryan (72%), Dravidian (25%), Mongoloid and other (3%), the plethora of languages spoken in India 400 at last count, plus 2,000 dialects speak to a diversity almost beyond the average Westerners comprehension. India is also a very young nation, with the mean age being 25.3, and with nearly 95% of the population under the age of 64 (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†). Indias population is also increasing at a brisk, if not explosive rate; it ranks 84th in the world in terms of highest growth rates higher than the United States (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†). Literacy is at 61%, and only 29% of the population is urban—a number which has been increasing at the slow creep of 2.4% over the last five years (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†). When adopting a big-picture perspective, noticeable differences appear between men and women: males tend to be younger, more literate and more educated (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†). Males also tend to be more plentiful earlier in life, with a higher birth rate of 1.12 males to every female, but their life expectancy is lower by almost five years (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†). One of Hinduisms most potent legacies, insofar as demographic effect is concerned, is Indias hierarchical caste system (Lonner; Zhang, 11 and 14). Although the caste system evolved from Hinduism for over 1000 years, some groups of other faiths such as Christians and Muslims adhere to this ancient social structure (â€Å"Religions†). Indias society reveals large gaps between the lifestyles of upper and lower class Indians; the bottom 10% hold only 3.6% of the nations wealth, where the top 10% have accumulated 31.1% (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†). By purchasing power parity, India is the 5th largest economy in the world, yet, it remains one of the poorest, with an estimated 53% of the population subsisting on less than one dollar a day in income (CIA World Factbook, â€Å"India†; Gannon and Pillai 469). Compounding economic difficulties are social, geographic and political realities, which prevent equal development for all. In a submission to the periodical Cultural Anthropology, writer Kaushik Ghosh describes the conflicting strains of â€Å"indigenousness, locality and transnationalism,† which combine to blunt social and economic development efforts being made in India. The reality for India is that, given its immense, far-flung borders (greater than the continent of Europe, according to WorldBusinessCulture.com), extreme geographic features, and the extreme multiplicity of the ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, it is not possible for any change to be applied uniformly and in a way that affects all people equally. Ghosh depicts the isolated tribes of Jharkhand, India, who, in their efforts to lobby their local government and national representatives, become effectively nullified when they are lumped in with other, separate interest groups that are labeled â€Å"indi genous.† Another writer, Navtej Dhillon, shares that â€Å"the majority of Indias 150 million muslimsMuslims suffer relative deprivation when to education and access to public employment.† For a time, the Indian government had utilized socialist economic policies, and today the state is still a large player in economic development. The role taken by government can be paternalistic, and elected officials try to reward their voters and supporters with jobs and economic opportunities. Combine this economic reality with the fact that Indias multiparty, parliamentary government is characterized by heavy regionalism and identity politics, and you get the following: certain groups are sometimes purposefully excluded from lucrative government business opportunities (Bellman, â€Å"Politics Economics: Reversal of Fortune Isolates Indias Brahmins†). In an article published in the Wall Street Journal, journalist Eric Bellman describes a government policy in the State of Tamil Nadu, which allocates 69% of government jobs and public college slots for lower castes. Though this policy actually has its genesis in the Indian Constitution, which itself was formulated to correct concentrations of wealth and privilege in the higher castes, the article documents a new dimension to the state policy, which is considerably less altruistic and more partisan. Yet for all that academics, journalists and political leaders have described the staggering dimensions of social and economic inequality, it is apparent that within India itself, there is consensus insofar as a solution is concerned: education. Gannon and Pillai describe the perceived success of Indias educational sector, which, as mentioned above, has produced an enormous pool of highly-educated and specialized workers (Gannon and Pillai 504). Indias success in these areas also masks startling inequalities, namely the low literacy rates and a general lack of access to education for many people (505). Competition to rise above ones peers is inordinately tough given the limited number of slots open at public and private universities, and in secondary school, a performance test is given to determine which field of study for which a student is eligible (Cheney, Ruzzi and Muralidharan, 8). Despite the systemic challenges like a drastic lack of funding, deficient facilities, and teacher a bsenteeism, the value placed on education and knowledge is so present in Indian culture as to make â€Å"millions of students achieve at remarkably high levels.† It is this valuing of educational attainment, which has established India as a preeminent figure in high technology fields, and paved the way for long-term economic development. Despite the endemic poverty, economic development in India has given rise to a sizeable and growing middle class, which contains in its membership the â€Å"largest number of college-educated scientists and computer specialists in the world.† (Gannon and Pillai, 469). India is now looking inwards to, in the words of Indian President, Manmohan Singh, â€Å"a vast unfinished agenda of social and economic development,† to correct abuses and disparities which occur due to culture, history, politics or environment. ii. Religion and Philosophy Every aspect of Indian culture has been impacted by religion. Prominent Hindu and philosopher Swami Vivekananda stated, â€Å"Each nation has a theme in life. In India religious life forms the central theme, the keynote of the whole music of the nation† (Gannon 470). Martin Gannon wrote, â€Å"For 2000 years of its history, India was almost completely Hindu, but for the last millennium or more, Indian culture has been a synthesis of different racial, religious, and linguistic influences† (470). Tolerance has also sustained religious pluralism of Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Secularists, and other persuasions (Census of India). Despite having an 80.5% Hindu population, Indian culture is not only a Hindu culture (Census of India). The other major indigenous religions in India are Jainism (0.4%), Buddhism (0.8 %), and Sikhism (1.9%), and the major imported religions are Christianity (2.3 %) and Islam (13.4%) (â€Å"Religions†). Other smaller religions comprise 0.6% of the population, and are namely, Zoroastrianism or Parsi, Bahai Faith, Jews, and tribal persons who practice the most ancient religion of animism (â€Å"Religions†). 0.1% of Indias population did not state a religion (Census of India). Hinduism is tied with the ancient Vedic tradition estimated to have formed around 1500 B.C. and had continued to be the sole religion of India up until a thousand years ago or more (Gannon, 470; Heitzman). Indian philosophy, with its thematic undercurrents of cycles, owes much to Hinduism and later dharma traditions (Gannon, 471). The dharma and ancient monastic tradition of Jainism, owes much of its religious precepts to Hinduism (Census of India; â€Å"Religions†). Experts speculate the formation of Jainism began in the 9th century B.C. by Parshvanatha whose teachings required a path of non-violence for all living beings and other practices to guide the soul to divine consciousness (â€Å"Religions†). Similarly, Buddhism was inspired by the life and beliefs of Siddhartha Gautama, or Buddha, between the 6th and 4th centuries B.C. (Census of India; â€Å"Religions†). Buddhism is a dharma religion consisting of varied philosophies, beliefs, and traditions that hav e spread to the East. Buddhists in India near the Chinese border mainly follow Tibetan Buddhism or Vajrayana, which means from Sanskrit â€Å"Vehicle of the Thunderbolt†; and those located near the Myanmar border practice Theravada, translated from Pali â€Å"Way of the Elders† (â€Å"Religions†). Sikhism was established by Guru Nanak in the sixteenth century, who attempted to reform specific Hindu tenants like eliminating the caste system, race, and gender inequities (Census of India; â€Å"Religions†). Islam arrived in India during the early eighth century; largely from the Sunni sect (Census of India; Heitzman; â€Å"Religions†). The division of the British Empire at Indias independence forced many Muslims to migrate to Pakistan and Hindus to India, but Islam still remains the largest minority religion today (Census of India; â€Å"Religions†). Indias Christian inhabitants are majority Roman Catholic, but consist of several other denominations, including both independent and consolidated Protestant churches of Church of North India and South India (Heitzman; â€Å"Religions†). Indias small community of Parsis comprises the last practitioners of Zoroastrianism, which was brought by Iranian immigrants one thousand years ago. There are small communities of Judaism, Bahai Faith, and tribal animists (â€Å"Religions†). After Indias independence in 1947, the establishment of a secular government further facilitated mutual respect of all religious practices in public society through legislation advocating neutrality in all things rooted in an individual or groups faith (Sen, 19). Notwithstanding its constitutional obligation, religion and government do still intermix, shown in the management of Hindu temples by the Tamil Nadu state government or the Sikh political party exerting full authority over the state assembly in Punjab (Heitzman). Furthermore, Indias long tradition of religious tolerance began to be challenged by fundamental ideologues starting from the 1960s. From the 1990s to the present, riots and religious-based political parties continue to impact public life and its relatively neutral governmental body (Heitzman). 1. Hindu Religion Philosophy The general premise of Hindu philosophy is that truth is organic, pluralistic, and sometimes inconsistent, and should be arrived by multiple sources, rather than dogmatic principles (â€Å"Religions†). In other words, context matters most in India, a culture that Edward Hall refers to as high-context (Hall, 101). Hinduism is an ancient polytheistic faith originating from Vedism, or simply Brahmanism, brought by invading Aryans in 1500 B.C and thus is subsequently deemed to be the oldest â€Å"living† religion (â€Å"Religions†). Hinduisms major groups are Vaishnavism and Shaivism, though membership in these groups is loose, dynamic, and vague (â€Å"Religions†). The leading sects are the Vaishnavas, who worship Vishnu god or a related avatar such as Rama and Krishna, Shaivas which worships the god Shiva, and Shaktis, a cult that worships the manifestations of Shakti, the mother goddess and companion of Shiva. Other smaller sects advocate religious reform and revival, charity to the poor, or follow the teachings of a charismatic leader (â€Å"Religions†). There is said to be â€Å"five tensile strands† in Hinduism: doctrine, practice, society, story, and devotion (â€Å"Religions†). All Hindus follow these strands to varying degrees and accept their distinct tensions and contradictions, favoring religious enthusiasm over â€Å"fundamental rigidities of practice or doctrine† (â€Å"Religions†). To achieve absolute happiness one must live beyond worldly possessions through spiritual enlightenment—a journey in search of salvation or mukti in which leads to an ethereal transcendence called moksha (Gannon, 475). Hindu philosophy guides each person on a distinct path to this exultation from worldly suffering along four fundamental avenues that often are intertwined: intense devotion or love of God (bhakti yoga), selfless work or service (karma yoga), philosophy or knowledge of self (jnana yoga), and meditation or psychological exercise (raja yoga) (Gannon, 475). The difficulty of achieving moksha in ones l ifetime is accommodated by the concept of reincarnation in which souls or jivas enter the world through Gods power mysteriously and ascend from the simplest life forms to the most complicated bodies or human form where the search for mukti begins (Gannon, 475). The degree of these three fundamental qualities is determined by the equilibrium of rights and wrongs done in past lives, called karma and is predicted by astrological charts at birth (Gannon, 476). Hinduism also gave rise to the caste system. A caste or jati (translated as â€Å"birth†) is a social organization into which someone is born. It is also a system purported to provide social support and established economic and social roles, making it the most influential contribution to Indias collective culture (â€Å"Religions†; Zhang, 11-13). There are over 2000 distinct jatis in Indian society today (â€Å"Religions†). Each member marries within the same jati and follows specific rules of behavior such as kinship, profession, and diet, and interacts with other jatis according to their social position (â€Å"Religions†). Each jati is associated with five caste clusters or varnas in descending order: Brahmans which are priests, Kshatriyas as warriors, Vaishyas which were originally peasants but now associated with merchants, Sudras as artisans and laborers, and Panchamas which historically had been excluded from the system because of their occupation an d ways in life (â€Å"Religions†). The fifth varna reveals the mechanism for determining the level of the caste: purity. The rate at which a group comes into contact with pollutants such as dung, menstrual flow, leather, dirt, hair, saliva, and blood, determines its ranking within the social caste system (â€Å"Religions†). Panchamas are avoided for fear of contamination, hence the name â€Å"Untouchables,† but the Constituent Assembly of India adopted legislation after Indias independence outlawing the reference (â€Å"Religions†). More recently, the phrase â€Å"Dalit†, which means â€Å"Oppressed†, has been utilized in contemporary India, but is officially called â€Å"Scheduled Castes† (â€Å"Religions†). One sixth of the population belonging to this caste are typically landless, have agricultural professions, and other ritually contaminating occupations such as leatherwork which is the largest Scheduled Caste (â€Å"Relig ions†). Author Richard Lannoy demarcates mutually exclusive Western conceptions of â€Å"right and wrong† or â€Å"good and evil† from Indias philosophy which stresses finding the middle way (227). Furthermore, the cyclical nature of Hindu thought lends to an â€Å"open-ended sense of perfectibility, less anguish in the face of time, a less fanatical will to achieve everything in a single lifetime† and manifests in Indias holistic, non-linear, and inductive styles of reasoning and dialogue, harmonious existence with its environment, fluid sense of time, and high Long-Term orientation (Hall, 17; Lonner; Zhang, 20). 2. Holidays, Traditions Celebrations Both religious holidays and secular celebrations are observed broadly in India, often time with the same holy day being celebrated in unique ways by the varying religious and secular communities. For example, in Hinduism the festival of Diwali plays a significant role, but is interpreted differently by other related religions, such as BuddismBuddhism, Sikhs, and Jains. In its most generic form, Diwali is the festival of lights. Easter, Christmas, Islamic New Year and many others are also broadly celebrated by the Indian populace. In addition to holidays, the religions of India tend to be very ritualistic traditions as well. One such ritual is the lighting of the lamp before the altar of Lord Brahma while saying a prayer. This lighting represents darkness, knowledge, and ignorance. It is common in many Indian homes to have an altar or a prayer room. This symbolizes the Lord Brahma as the master of creation, and thus reorients the lives of people who occupy the surrounding space towards him and themselves. Hindu women often wear the pottu or tilak, which â€Å"invokes a feeling of sanctity the wearer and others†. The different colors and forms depend on the caste and religious subdivision. Taken as a whole, all these act of devotions large and small present a pattern as to the approach a great many Indians take toward religion and spirituality: integration. Indians of all religions are also known to regularly make pilgrimages to visit certain holy or nationally evocative sites. This attribute attests t o the powerful force of religion in an Indians daily life. B. Frames of Reference / Communication In the latter half of the 20th Century, pioneering anthropologist and culture-expert, Edward Hall conceived of what he called â€Å"the silent language† of culture. By extending the notion of culture from the more well-known and studied â€Å"front-stage† elements, and exploring the rich â€Å"back-stage† of culture, Hall demonstrated how beliefs, schemas, associated meanings and symbolism could affect intercultural communication as assiduously as spoken language might. The second subdivision of the component parts of Indian culture consider the communication patterns and frames of reference utilized by society as a whole, beginning with an exploration of the expressions and general attitudes found in contemporary Indian society, continuing with a discussion of role relationships, and ending with gestures and non-verbal communication. i. Expressions and General attitudes Like few other cultures, the belief systems found in India tend to be exhaustive and encompass a variety of values and philosophical perspectives on a wide variety of issues, such as nature (environment), human nature, privacy, individuality, wealth / material possessions, social positions, government, politics, childhood and child-rearing, time, crime, violence and others. A prominent feature of Indian society, even in non-Hindu cultures, is fatalism, which is an ultimate acceptance of the hand of fate insofar as guiding ones affairs are concerned (www.communicaid.com). Fatalism is tied to the Hindu notion of Karma, that â€Å"everything happens for a reason† and breeds and encourages passivity, and a surprisingly low uncertainty avoidance score for a country with such traditionalistic cultures (www.communicaid.com). Indian society is high context and collectivist; thus a prevalent concern in all interactions is the maintenance of social relationship and the preservation of social face. As such, activities which would provoke harsh judgment from ones peers isare frowned on. Many experts have noted that successful communication in India depends on precise knowledge of the status of the individual with whom one is speaking, and the relative standing between each party. Edward Hall diagnosed India as having a high-context culture, which is characterized by indirect, face-saving and listener-centric communication styles (Hall, p. 101). In India, communication is informed by role relationships, which, reflecting the society at large, are varied and complex. ii. Role relationships Role relationships in Indian society are in some instances outgrowths of the traditional caste system, as well as religious beliefs. The Indian caste system has been and continues to be influential in everyday life of the people. The main purpose of the caste system is to bring a sense of order in the society. The caste system enables people to have their own place in society and keeps away from any conflict. Outside of the traditional, economic and religious strictures of the Caste system, India as a society is marked by high power distance and tends to embrace clearly articulated lines of authority and respect. Indians base this respect on the behavior, title, class, and status of the person with whom he or she is interacting. The status of an Indian is determined in part by his or her possession of a university degree, his or her profession, age, and caste. In terms of professions, given the deference provided to authority figures, it is considered more impressive to work for the government than the private sector. Gender-based differences also exist, despite laws to the contrary. The head of the family is almost universally the eldest male. Male chauvinism is well-established, and women do not have the same privileges as do males. iii. Gestures and Non-verbal Communication As a high context culture, Indian communicators tend to rely heavily on indirect verbal and non-verbal cues to reinforce their message. In addition, Indians rely on a variety of contextual cues for comprehending meaning. For example, the word â€Å"No† or any kind of direct refusal is absent from most Indian discourse because it implicates an aggressive, harsh, impolite, and arrogant tone. Instead â€Å"vague and open-ended answer such as ‘Ill try or ‘I will confirm with you another time† are considered acceptable answers (â€Å"India: Prosperous Entertaining Part I†). Subsequently, a â€Å"Yes† does not always imply agreement or acceptance. Extrapolated further, some of these cues have taken on a life of their own, which is separate and considered standard when interacting with others. For instance, in order to show respect, greetings are offered with what is termed the ‘namaste or the placing of both hands together as if praying coup led with a slight bow. Use of the right hand when touching people or objects is recommended; due to the cultural association, the left hand is viewed as being unclean. Head bobbles, head wobbles, and Indian head shakes refer are a common gesture found in South Asian cultures, most notably in India. The head shake is the non-verbal equivalent of a multipurpose and omnipresent Hindi word, accha, which can mean anything from â€Å"good† to â€Å"I understand.† Shaking a head sideways is taken as non approval of certain things, whereas shaking a head up and down is taken as approval, though the meaning is reversed if you are aan Indian from the South. Similarly, a side to side hand wave is frequently interpreted by Indians as â€Å"no† or â€Å"go away.† Eye contact with an elder or person in a senior position is considered very rude. Avoiding eye contact with the seniors is considered as a sign of respect. Another non-verbal taboo is to touch a persons head because it ; The head is considered sensitive and so shouldnt be touched. Likewise, one should never point with a single finger or two fingers, instead, point with the chin, whole hand or thumb. Prostrating before God and elders and touching their feet is the humblest way of conveying respect in Indian culture. Known as Sashtang Namaskar it is bowing with four limbs of the body touching the ground. Touching feet of the elders is showing respect. Staring is also acceptable, as staring at strangers is a Western cultural taboo that does not carry the same weight in India. Many people feel quite free to stare at anything, or anyone, that is different from them and as part of their culture. Interpreting this as rudeness is unproductive. C. Group Interactions The third component of culture is group interactions, which are limited here to general social interactions amongst friends, peers and professional settings. Generally summarized, interactions can be sub-categorized into greetings, visits, and meetings. i. Greetings Renowned expert organizational behavior and psychology, Dr. Madhukar Shukla, describes Indians as outgoing and friendly, an attitude that is bolstered by a sense of privacy, which is less guarded than in the West (Shukla, â€Å"India: ConversatonConversation Part 1). One should not, therefore, be surprised by the ease with which conversation is started, nor with which it covers ostensibly private subject matters. There are several different naming forms in India, which vary from region to region (Kwintessential.com, â€Å"Global-Etiquette: India-country profile†). In the north of India, it is common to see a given name, followed by a surname or family name, whereas in the south, names commonly begin with a reference to the town or region the person is from, followed by the fathers name, and then lastly their given name. Similarly, in Muslim culture, surnames are not common, instead, have a derivative of their fathers name tacked on after the given name by ‘bin if the person is a male, and ‘binti if they are a female, which in both cases means ‘of; the name ‘Hajji might also have been added if this person had made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Sikhs,Sikhs also have a unique naming system, which is the given name followed by the name ‘Singh (Kwintessential.com, â€Å"Global-Etiquette: India-country profile†). In all cases, however, it is recommended that w hen addressing someone, one should give the correct name, prefaced by Mr.† or â€Å"Mrs.†, or by his or her professional title: doctor, director, chairman/woman, and so on (Shukla, â€Å"India: First Name or Title?†). Furthermore, the same source points out that despite the variety, in many parts of India, people will conform to the Hindu style of naming, which is the most widely used. Upon entering the room, greetings should be offered first to the oldest or most senior person present; in many cases, the oldest person will be the most senior-ranked. Offering a â€Å"Namaste,† a handshake or even a pleasant â€Å"hello† is acceptable, though there are important caveats to note. Depending on the religion of the person with whom one meets if he or she is a muslimMuslim a â€Å"Salaam Wale Kum† might be more appropriate (Shukla, â€Å"India: First Name or Title?†). Handshakes are acceptable for men; however touch is a sensitive area for many Indians, so a handshake might not be as acceptable for women (Shukla, â€Å"India: First Name or Title?†). Experts suggest respecting the physical space of Indian counterparts, and any physical interactions should be at their initiative. The recommendation of the â€Å"hello† and slight wave,wave should only be acted upon if the audience is younger, as it is reasonable to assume they wou ld be familiar with this aspect of western culture. (Shukla, â€Å"India: First Name or Title?†) ii. Visiting â€Å"Hospitality is a key value in Indian culture, and the guest is considered the equivalent to god† (Shukla, â€Å"India: Prosperous Entertaining Part I†). Foreigners and Indians alike can attest to the geniality one encounters from invitations by those they just met to â€Å"drop on by† at any time. The Indian hos

Autism in Children :: essays research papers

Lemon juice Pepper spray Handcuffs Blindfolds   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These are terms that should never enter a parents mind when they send Their children off to school. Especially, if their child is autistic, or has some other kind of learning disability. These terms are known as aversives, and are used to reduce behaviors in children mainly with autism. They cause pain and are a form of punishment for a behavior no matter how large or small i.e. Biting, kicking, punching, not blowing your nose, or not sitting when told to do so. If a command was not followed by a student, the teachers’ immediate reaction is to use one of the many aversives. This is something that has to be stopped and should not be allowed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This type of behavior modification is used all through out the United States and there are even two known programs that use aversives in New Jersey, Eden Institute and Bancroft Neurohealth. I was personally at Eden and witnessed this going on right in front of me, and I knew of a student that unfortunately past away in one of these places. (will not name which) these techniques are dangerous, torturous, over used, and should not be allowed. There are millions of different things that can be done to achieve the same success rate of reducing behaviors. They may not be as quick, but they can and will work. How about positive reinforcement? A technique used in schools also to reduce behaviors. That means you speak to the child is a positive manner or use a reward system like verbal praise, or a piece of cookie, or a sip of a favorite drink to reduce a behavior. If a child does not listen or does not like to follow directions, you can say â€Å"Mike if you sit quietly then I will give you a piece of cookie† and most of the time the child will listen because he/she really wants that cookie.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Now some may say that’s fine and dandy but what about more aggressive behavior? Like biting or pulling hair. I would say if a child is biting try to find out why the child is biting. Is it because he is upset, can’t verbalize what he/she wants or maybe his/her teeth are bothering them. There are a lot of things that can be done. For starters develop a behavior plan, using the ABC method. This means Antecedent Behavior Consequence.

The Ethics of Microsoft Taking on End User in China :: Piracy Technology Software Essays

The Ethics of Microsoft Taking on End User in China Background ( Microsoft vs Beijing Yadu Science and Technology Group.) The case of Microsoft Corporation ( China), Ltd. V. Beijing Yadu Science and Technology Group is considered a landmark court case in which the Beijing First Intermediate People’s Court (BFIPC) handed down its decision on Microsoft’s complaint against Beijing Yadu Science and Technology Group. The company Yadu was found to be in possession of a dozens of pirated copies of Microsoft products installed in its computer computers. 1 The case was eventually dismissed in December 17, 1999 not because it did not have merit, but rather on the technicality that Microsoft misidentified the defendant in its allegation. 1 Even though the case was dismissed on technicality, it sparked much debate among the Chinese legal community about the ambiguity within the existing law in China with regard to this matter. More significantly, it created an even more hotly debated issue about the ethics of software infringement. Introduction Software piracy in the year 2002 was estimated to have cost U.S. software companies world wide an estimated 9.2 billion dollars as a result of revenue loss. Of all the hundreds of countries world wide, China is by far the biggest contributor to this revenue loss at an estimated figure of 1.85 billion dollars. 2 Thus not surprisingly, law suits over the issue of software infringement is so prevalent in China today. In December of 1999, Microsoft, the world’s largest and most dominant software company set a new legal precedence in China in the landmark case of Microsoft Corporation ( China), Ltd. V. Beijing Yadu Science and Technology Group. The law suit caused an uproar among numerous Chinese consumers because for the first time in China, â€Å"a major foreign software manufacturer went directly after an end user for copyright infringement in China† instead of just the people who manufactures and sells the counterfeit software. 3 At first glance, it is easy for many Americans in the United States to simply say this case is nothing more than a matter of right and wrong, black and white. The obvious argument would seem to be that if you use something without paying for it, then it constitute stealing. Without a doubt, stealing is universally regarded as wrong in every country and in every culture. However, in a case such as this, we are not dealing straight forward laws.

The Pursuit of Happiness in Fahrenheit 451 :: Fahrenheit 451 Essays

Happiness plays an important and necessary role in the lives of people around the world. In America, happiness has been engrained in our national consciousness since Thomas Jefferson penned these famous words in the Declaration of Independence: â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness† (Jefferson). Since then, Americans have been engaged in that act: pursuing happiness. The problem however, as Ray Bradbury demonstrates in his novel Fahrenheit 451, is that those things which make us happy initially may eventually lead to our downfall. By examining Guy Montag, the protagonist in Fahrenheit 451, and the world he lives in we can gain valuable insights to direct us in our own pursuit of happiness. From Montag and other characters we will learn how physical, emotional, and spiritual happiness can drasti cally affect our lives. We must ask ourselves what our lives, words, and actions are worth. We should hope that our words are not meaningless, â€Å"as wind in dried grass† (Eliot). History Before we look into specifics, we’ll examine the history and development of â€Å"happiness† as a philosophy. Of course, the emotion of happiness has always existed, but it began to be seriously contemplated around 2,500 years ago by philosophers like Confucius, Buddha, Socrates and Aristotle. Shortly after Buddha taught his followers his Noble Eight Fold Path (which we will talk about later), Aristotle was teaching that happiness is â€Å"dependent on the individual† (Aristotle). Probably more than any of the early philosophers, Aristotle promoted happiness as a central component of human life. The Greeks used a term, eudaimonia, which is often used as the Greek word for happiness. However, most scholars translate it as â€Å"human flourishing† or â€Å"well-being of the spirit.† Along with eudaimonia, terms like arete, â€Å"virtue†, and phronesis, â€Å"practical or moral wisdom†, are at the core of Greek philosophy. So if you could have asked Aristotle â€Å"What components or values must a person have in order to live a fulfilling life?† He probably would have answered, â€Å"Virtue, wisdom, and spiritual well-being.† Would Aristotle have been pleased with the futuristic world of Fahrenheit 451? Probably not. Certainly, the lack of virtue, learning, and the false sense of happiness would have astonished any of the early philosophers. Physical Happiness

How did the Cold War begin Essay

The Cold War was â€Å"the struggle for global power between the United States and the Soviet Union following World War II† (History book, pg. 874). The Cold War began by controversial wants and needs from two different countries and several different â€Å"weapons† were used to fight this controversial war. The feuds eventually kept building up, greater and greater, resulting in one great war. Two countries, the United States and the Soviet Union both took part in fighting. The Cold war began for a number of different reasons. One of the main reasons this war began was that there were huge differences in the way that the Soviet and the US led one another and the disagreements eventually reached a final rising point, causing several feuds as well, riots. The US was a democratic state where many parties could stand and elections were held. It was a fair and politically correct policy for everyone. â€Å"I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted domination by armed minorities or outside pressure.† (DBQ 2) The Soviet was a communist state, where the political party controlled the state. The people basically had no free will. More reasons as to how the Cold War started up would be affected by the mistrust between the two countries. It started as far back as the October Revolution of 1917. When the communists came to power, they created harsher ways of ruling their country, which angered the US greatly. One last reason on how the Cold War came about was the US fear of Russian expansion. In 1922, Russia combined with five other states creating the Soviet Union. In 1936 five more states joined forming an even larger Soviet Union. Eventually the Soviet Union had almost equaled the size of Europe. â€Å"All these famous cities and the populations around them lie in the Soviet sphere†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (DBQ 1) The US feared a new uprising of a strong, independent, and powerful country. â€Å"I need to say that the world situation is very serious†¦ Europe must have a great deal of additional help, or face heavy economic, social, and political damage.† (DBQ 3) During the Cold War there weren’t really weapons used during the war. Going back to the term â€Å"Cold War,† it referenced to not having the war getting â€Å"heated† with weapons of mass destruction etc. No Nuclear, Biological or Chemical weapons were used during this Cold War. Instead, the countries fought up front, or in some other type of not so violent way. However, during the Cold War, there were some new weapons that were created from both sides. During this period, the Soviet Union created their own atomic bomb and the H-Bomb (Hydrogen Bomb) was first created in the United States. These two weapons of mass destruction were not used, better suggesting the phrase, â€Å"Cold War.† If by any means there were to be a weapon of mass destruction aimed at the opposing enemy, then the country responsible for the cause would have to help restore, and fix any damages caused. â€Å"They agree that if such an armed attack occurs, each of them will assist the party or parties so attacked.† (DBQ 4) The Cold War was a five year war against the Soviet Union and the United States. These two Communist and Democratic countries had very different views and ways of ruling their citizens. One feared of expansion, the other feared of the opposing differences. However, they both agreed on keeping the war at a minimum by agreeing to not allow weapons of mass destruction, etc. to come into the war. Hints to the term â€Å"Cold War.†

Nursing and Family Stress Theory

Critique and Analysis of Family Stress Theory Nursing theory explains the relationship between concepts to enhance understanding and knowledge about a phenomenon (Walker & Advant, 2005). Theoretical frameworks for nursing of families provide a foundation for guiding the development of family centered care and research (Friedman, Bowden, & Jones, 2003). The application of theory helps to guide nursing practice, education, and research and supports the development of evidence-based nursing strategies and interventions for both the individual and the family as the client. This paper will critique and provide an analysis of the family stress theory. A brief introduction of the history and author of this theory will be provided and the major concepts and assumptions of the theory described. The rationale for selecting this theoretical model as it relates to family nursing practice will be provided and its strengths and weaknesses identified. In addition, a discussion of the application of the Family Stress Theory in current nursing research will be presented. Finally, ideas for future research needed to continue to develop this theory for its application in family nursing practice will be explored. Family Stress Theory The family stress theory was introduced by Professor Reuben Hill in the late1940s after the Great Depression (McDonald, n. d. ). McDonald (n. d) explains that Hill based his observations on families who survived the economic challenges of the Great Depression and those families who did not. Friedman, Bowden, and Jones (2003), explain that Hill based his research on the effects of separation and reunions as a result of war time on families. In both cases, the Family Stress Theory helps to explain why some families are able to adapt and survive when faced with stressors while other families encounter crisis. Hill’s Family Stress Theory has served as a framework for the development of more contemporary family stress models, such as the Resiliency Model, and as a foundation for clinical practice and crisis intervention (Friedman, Bowden, and Jones, 2003). Major Concepts Hill describes the importance of social relationships and positive perceptions which serve as buffers in protecting the family from crisis (McDonald, n. d. ). In developing the family stress theory, Hill formulated an ABCX framework which helps to define the stress, identify the family resources, explore the family’s perception of the stressor, and the crisis. The A variable is identified as the provoking stressor or event that the family encounters. Family experiences and strengths as well as family and community resources represent the B variable. This variable includes the family’s social support structure, both internal and external, which impact the magnitude of the stress on the family (McDonald, n. d. ). The family perception of the degree of stress produced by the provoking stressor or event represents the C variable. Combined, these three variables influence how a family copes, reacts, and manages the situation and determines whether or not the situation becomes a crisis, the X variable. Past experiences, adequate and available resources, time, and support all impact how a family is able to adapt and change to the situation. The application of the family stress theory helps to predict the potential for a family crisis. According to McDonald (n. d. ), â€Å"the combination of high stress with social isolation (the â€Å"B† variable) for families has been highly correlated with many forms of dysfunctional family outcomes† (para. ). Hill’s family stress theory provides a framework for a family as client focused assessment and the development of evidence-based nursing interventions that strengthen the family and promote positive outcomes. Family Stress Theory’s assumption about Family and Nursing The Family Stress theory is middle range theories developed by Hill and as th e variability of families are recognized through research, the traditional ABCX theoryevolved to different family stress theory and developed the conceptualization and the assumption of what family is about. In 1996, McCubbin and McCubbin outlined the theory’s assumption of a family in crisis (Smith & Liehr, 2008, p. 227) : Families over the course of life face hardships and changes as a natural and predictable aspect of family life. Families develop basic competencies, patterns of functioning, and capabilities to foster the growth and development of family members and the family unit, and to protect the family from major disruptions in the face of transitions and changes. Families develop basic and unique competencies, patterns of functioning, and capabilities designed to protect the family from unexpected or non-normative stressors, and strains and to foster the family’s recovery following a family crisis or major transition or change. Families draw from and contribute to the network of relationships and resources in the community, including its ethnicity and cultural heritage, particularly during periods of family stress and crises. Families faced with crisis situations demanding changes in the family’s functioning work to restore order, harmony, and balance even in the midst of change. In the Family Stress theory’s metaparadigm, nursing is responsible in assisting families in the process of adaptation by promoting the family member’s health, help to recover from illness, assist the family member to function within the specific health limitation, support and develop family’s strengths, assist in the use of community resources available, facilitate the family in appraisal of the situation and help the family decide what is best for the situation (Beckett, 2000) . The Family Stress Theory in Family Nursing Stress can affect intimate relationships in the family setting. Although stress is normal and natural in the family setting, severe stress can lead to serious family situations such as domestic violence, alcoholism, substance abuse, and even child neglect. The outcome of the family’s situation during the stressful event depends on how the family responds and thrives to the stressful situation. A stressful event can be in the form of an acute or chronic illness in the family, sudden role changes,hardships in the family life cycle, separation, and death of a family member. The use of Family Stress Theory in Family Nursing assists the nurses in exploring the family system’s behavior and response to situational stressors and transitional events. The Family Stress theory was useful in the family’s coping ability regarding the care of the child with extraordinary needs (Crawford, 2002) . A child with special needs is a stress to both parents because time is needed to develop competency in caring for such child in the family. The use of community and family resources should be offered and considered to adapt to the crisis. One literature also applied the theory in remarriage in families and suggested that â€Å"remarriage and adjustment to step family living are conceptualized as life transition in the framework of the Family Stress Theory † (Crosbie-Burnett, 1989, p. 323) . Identifying all the variables present in any stressful event and the family’s capability of adapting to the stress using all resources available will assist the nurse in developing the nursing process by making a thorough family internal and external environmental assessment, assist the family in creating a goal and planning for strategies to resolve the issue, providing the family possible interventions in managing the stressor event, improving coping abilities, and enhancing the family’s strength during the stressful event. The nurse is also responsible in following-up and evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention to either continue the current management or change the coping strategy. Family Assessment In the use of qualitative and quantitative studies, families have different patterns to the response of stress. Assessing family resources, coping strategies, and processes provides the function for assisting families in adaptation and attainment of a higher level of wellness (Friedman, Bowden & Jones, 2003, para 3). Families engage in different management and coping strategies when dealing with stressful events. The nurse will have to assess the healthiness or dysfunctional aspects of the family. During the assessment period, the nurse set specific goals that will help the family with coping mechanisms of stress. The foundation for achieving the goals will depend on family support, financial resources and coping strategies. Families remain strong and durable even during today’s economic crisis. Despite all the economic, social and political pressures, most families can e considered to be functioning satisfactorily (Friedman, Bowden & Jones, 2003, para 4). The theoretical model family stress identifies two types of situations that will cause a family to enter into a crisis. Those situations are classified as developmental and situational events. Events that are identified as psychosocial growth of a family are noted as developmental events. Some examples are retirement, a child entering hi gh school or college, or adoption. The examples denote the normal life cycle affecting the entire family unit. Unexpected events are considered situational events such as death, loss of job, or the loss of the home due to fire. The family’s financial resources and coping mechanisms will help the family adapt and work through the crisis. The nurse can take the listed examples and help the family develop goals in becoming healthy and strong family again. Critique of the Family Stress Theory The use of the family stress theory by nurses with advanced training is a key indicator for creating care paths that enhance the effectiveness of outcomes for positive family health. Family clinicians use the stress theory to facilitate a collaborative learning process between family members with special emphasis on the different family processes: parenting, balancing work, dealing with childhood issues, and maintaining stability in home life. The stress theory is used as a helpful tool for identifying sources of stress that lend a head start for developing strategic plans to assist with managing them. Further applicability of the stress theory offers a supportive resource for identifying coping mechanisms of individual family members and determining how effective their coping strategies are during stressful family situations. The theoretical framework for the stress theory also serves as a tool for explaining how families adjust and adapt as one system during stressful events (Friedman, Bowden, & Jones, 2003, p. 470). Information for identifying coping mechanisms for families of culture can be acquired by using a cultural genogram to gather information about their trengths and weaknesses. The clinician uses the information to apply it to the stress theory framework to assist the family with developing feasible ways of dealing with stressful events. Continued research efforts incorporating the use of the stress theory critical for developing innovative family care plans for helping families avoid and decrease stress levels. Further family-focused research can be generated to addres s the coping behaviors of culturally diverse families during stressful situations (Friedman et al. , 2003). The new wave of multi-types of families supports the need for intervention research that serves as evidenced-based practices to help not only culturally diverse families but also all families to deal with stress. Strengths The strengths identified in using the family stress theory are that the model is easy to understand and easy to translate into therapy and intervention. During the assessment period of explaining the model and how it relates to the situational crisis of the family, it is important that families understand the system. The nurse will explain adaptation, family adaptation, family coherence and family resilience. During the educational process, the concepts can be defined and described in a manner the family can view the crisis and place the event in the family unit’s perspective. As the nurse translated the model into therapy sessions and intervention processes, the family will not have difficulty working together needed to heighten family growth. The nurse and family will work together to establish goals. During the intervention session the family will engage with the stressors affecting the family. The family will work extensively to return the unit to the whole family concept. Weaknesses Weaknesses identified are limited to the discussion of aspects in the family dealing with stress and punctuation or interruptions. The family may be limited on providing pertinent information in the discussions. The nurse can help set goals based on the provided information. Shame and guilt play intricate roles in how much information is provided. The family will need to engage in the discussion and work sessions in order to return to the functional family unit. Punctuation or interruptions occur during the meetings with the nurse and family. Unforeseen activities causes disorganized scheduled meeting. A specific time should be allotted for the meeting to alleviate interruptions. The nurse and family can make stride if the sessions are uninterrupted. Family Nursing Research The trends of nursing care have evolved over the years from being a patient centered care industry into an industry focused around family centered care. The focus of providing family centered care has resulted in an emergent need to develop concepts, assessment measures and clinical skills customized to the care being provided. For this reason, family nursing research has detonated although much of the research is in its infancy stages. Much of the current literature on family nursing pertains to pediatric nursing and family, however the call for family nursing research for the adult world of nursing is emerging as well. One particular study conducted by staff researchers at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill spotlight on how families care for a child with chronic illness and debilitating diseases. The byproduct of this research study is the FaMM (Family Management Measure). Although the FaMM was cultivate through the use of the Family Management Style Conceptual Framework (FMSF), the FaMM measures how a family manages during stressful situations, which is a direct correlation to the family stress theory. In addition to spotlighting, the purpose of the study is â€Å"that it will further the development and testing of interventions and the comprehensive assessment of families' efforts to manage chronic conditions† (Knafl et al. , 2007). Based on analyzing the investigations leading up to the FaMM, researchers had ne primary question and challenged themselves to discover a way to make the eight conceptual dimensions of the FMSF into a measureable assessment tool with a high percentage of reliability and validity. Second, an evaluation tool (FaMM) and a hypothesis was developed to support the inquiry. The hypothesis converged to explain how â€Å"data from the FaMM will contribute to clinicians’ and researchers’ ability to understand more fully family functioning in the context of childhood chronic conditions† (Knafl et al. , 2007). Even though the research study appears to be qualitative in methodology with its categorical approach to establishing measurements it is overwhelmingly quantitative. Each of the established measurement guidelines or categories becomes conclusive with a percentage score as a means to evaluate against ranges. The ranges help to determine whether the family has the ability to manage many of the stress factors associated with care of a chronically ill child. The results of the research demonstrated a high validity as well as reliability. In particular, the reliability of the test ranged between 72% to 90% for mothers and 73% to 91% for fathers, both demonstrating above 50% reliability. The future of family nursing research should branch out to include all forms of family; for example, children being raised by grandparents, homosexuals, foster parents and,other forms of guardianship. With the Family Stress Theory more research is needed to determine the long-lasting effects of stress on the family unit and ways to offset these effects. Furthermore, the research from family stress theory is useful to family nursing practice in that it gives nurses a starting point to initiate interventions, treatment and, other diagnoses. Conclusion Family stress theory provides nursing staff with both intrinsic and extrinsic information to use in providing better services, care,and outreach to families. The concepts and assumptions identified in the theory arecurrently being researched for efficiency in providing the best application measures for family nursing practice. Despite the weakness identified in the theory, the strengths of the theory far outweigh. In closing, the family stress theory can be used to guide nursing practice in acute care settings but also can provide in sight on primary prevention methods. References Beckett, C. (2000). Family theory as a framework for assessment. Unpublished manuscript, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona. Retrieved from http://jan. ucc. nau. edu/~nur350-c/class/2_family/theory/lesson2-1-3. html Crawford, D. (2002). Keep the focus on the family. Journal of Child Health Care, 6, 133-146. doi: 10. 1177/136749350200600201 Crosbie-Burnett, M. (1989, July). Application of Family Stress Theory to remarriage: A Model for assessing and helping stepfamilies. Family Relations, 38, 323-331. Retrieved from http://www. jstor. org/pss/585060 Friedman, M. M. , Bowden, V. R. , & Jones, E. G. (2003). Family Nursing: Research, Theory and Practice (5th Ed. ). Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Knafl, K. , Deatrick, J. , Gallo, A. , Dixon, J. , Grey, M. , Knafl, G. , & O’Malley, J. (2007). Family management measure (FaMM). Retrieved December 5, 2009, from http://nursing. unc. edu/research/famm/ McDonald, L. (n. d. ). Hill’s theory of family stress and buffer factors: Build the protective factor of social relationships and positive perception with multi-family groups_. Retrieved December 5, 2009, from http://cecp. air. org/vc/presentations/2selective/31mcdon/HILL’S_FAMILY_STRESS_THEORY_AND_FAST. htm Smith, M. , & Liehr, P. (2008). Middle range theory for nursing (2nd ed. ). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company, LLC. Walker, L. O . , & Avant, K. C. (2005). Strategies for theory construction in nursing (4th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.